Physiological signals measured in real time set the stimulation parameters of the next cycle, replacing fixed open-loop protocols.

Untethered modules stream neural and EMG data and deliver stimulation during free movement and long-term use.

Triboelectric and hybrid nanogenerators convert body motion into stimulation for self-powered modulation and sensory feedback.

Energy harvesting, wireless power transfer, and hermetic packaging determine how long an implanted system remains functional in vivo.